The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 Year 900 was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display a full calendar) of the Julian calendar in accordance with the Julian calendar The Julian calendar, a reform of the Roman calendar, was introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, and came into force in 45 BC . It was chosen after consultation with the astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria and was probably designed to approximate the tropical year, known at least since Hipparchus. It has a regular year of 365 days divided into 12 in the Christian Anno Domini and Before Christ (abbreviated as BC or B.C.) are designations used to label years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The calendar era to which they refer is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus, with AD denoting years after the start of this epoch, and BC denoting years before the start of/Common Era Common Era, abbreviated as CE, is one of the designations for the world's most commonly used year-numbering system. The numbering of years using Common Era notation is identical to the numbering used with Anno Domini notation, 2010 being the current year in both notations and neither using a year zero. Common Era is also known as Christian Era and.
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West Africa
A bronze ceremonial vessel made around the 9th Century The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian/Common Era, one of the bronzes found at Igbo Ukwu Igbo-Ukwu is a town in the Nigerian state of Anambra which was the site of three famous archaeological sites that revealed a highly sophisticated metal-working culture. The first, Igbo Isaiah, was uncovered in 1938 by Isaiah Anozie a local villager who stumbled upon the bronze works while digging beside his home. Subsequent excavations by Thurston.[1]Southeastern Nigeria
For more details on this topic, see Archaeology of Igbo-Ukwu Archaeology of Igbo-Ukwu started when bronzes dating from the 9th century AD were discovered in the Igbo town. The bronzes were found along with clay pots and glass beads. These objects had been made by Igbo Ukwu's citizens. The objects are cultural connected with that of the Igbo, and has connection with the Nri-Igbo.The Igbo people Igbo people, also referred to as the Ibo, Ebo(e), Eboans or Heebo (Igbo: Ndị Igbọ) are an ethnic group living chiefly in southeastern Nigeria. They speak Igbo, which includes various Igboid languages and dialects; today, a majority of them speak English alongside Igbo as a result of British colonialism. Igbo people are one of the largest and of what is now southeastern Nigeria Nigeria , officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and its Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the north. Its coast in the south lies on, develop bronzes of humans, animals and mythical creatures. These bronzes which were used as vessels, amulets, pendants and sacrificial tools, are among some of the earliest made bronzes ever found in Nigeria. Most items were part of a burial of a nobleman. These artifacts stemming form the Nri-Igbo culture in the northern part of Igboland were made at the town of Igbo Ukwu Igbo-Ukwu is a town in the Nigerian state of Anambra which was the site of three famous archaeological sites that revealed a highly sophisticated metal-working culture. The first, Igbo Isaiah, was uncovered in 1938 by Isaiah Anozie a local villager who stumbled upon the bronze works while digging beside his home. Subsequent excavations by Thurston. These bronzes also marks the start of the development of the Nri Kingdom The Kingdom of Nri was the West African medieval state of the Nri-Igbo, a subgroup of the Igbo people, and is the oldest kingdom in Nigeria. The Kingdom of Nri was unusual in the history of world government in that its leader exercised no military power over his subjects. The kingdom existed as a sphere of religious and political influence over.
Long distance trading was also discovered through the thousands of glass beads found at the sites.
Western Europe
Britain
Britain experienced a great influx of Viking The term Viking is customarily used to refer to the Norse (Scandinavian) explorers, warriors, merchants, and pirates who raided, traded, and settled in wide areas of Europe and the North Atlantic islands from the late eighth to the mid-eleventh century. These Norsemen used their famed longships to travel as far east as Constantinople and the Volga peoples in the ninth century as the Viking Age Viking Age is the term for the period in European history, especially Northern European and Scandinavian history, spanning the eighth to eleventh centuries. Scandinavian Vikings explored Europe by its oceans and rivers through trade and warfare. The Vikings also reached Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland, and Anatolia. Additionally, there is continued from the previous century. The kingdoms of the Heptarchy The Heptarchy is a collective name applied to the supposed seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of south, east, and central Great Britain during late antiquity and the early Middle Ages which eventually unified into the Kingdom of England. During the same period, what are now Ireland, Scotland and Wales were also divided into comparable petty kingdoms. The were gradually conquered and puppet rulers were given power over these. This invasion was achieved by a huge military force known as the Great Heathen Army The Great Heathen Army, also known as the Great Army or the Great Danish Army, was a Viking army originating in Denmark which pillaged and conquered much of England in the late 9th century. Unlike many of the Scandinavian raiding armies of the period, surviving sources give no firm indication of its numbers, but it was clearly among the largest which was supposedly led by Ivar the Boneless Ivar Ragnarsson nicknamed the Boneless (inn beinlausi), was a Danish or Swedish Viking chieftain and by reputation also a berserker. By the late 11th century he was known as a son of the powerful Ragnar Lodbrok, ruler of an area probably comprising parts of Denmark and Sweden, Halfdan Ragnarsson Halfdan was one of the sons of Ragnar Lodbrok. It has been suggested that he is the same person as Ragnar's son Hvitserk[citation needed]. He pillaged with his brothers in England in 865, and later became a leader of the Great Heathen Army. He was the ruler of London 871–872 where he had coins made and Guthrum Guthrum or Guthrum the Old , christened Æthelstan, was King of the Danish Vikings in the Danelaw. He is mainly known for his conflict with Alfred the Great. This Danish army first arrived in Britain in 865 in East Anglia East Anglia is a traditional name for a region of eastern England, named after an ancient Anglo-Saxon kingdom, the Kingdom of the East Angles. The Angles took their name from their homeland Angeln, in northern Germany. East Anglia initially consisted of Norfolk and Suffolk, but upon the marriage of the East Anglian princess Etheldreda, the Isle of. After taking the kingdom there the army proceeded to capture the city of York York (locally /ˈjɔːk/ ) is a walled city, situated at the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The city has a rich heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events throughout much of its two millennia of existence (Jorvik Scandinavian York is a term, like the terms Kingdom of Jórvík or Kingdom of York, used by historians for the kingdom of Northumbria in the late 9th century and first half of the 10th century, when it was dominated by Norse warrior-kings; in particular, it is used to refer to the city controlled by these kings. York used to be a centre of) and establish the kingdom of Jorvik Scandinavian York is a term, like the terms Kingdom of Jórvík or Kingdom of York, used by historians for the kingdom of Northumbria in the late 9th century and first half of the 10th century, when it was dominated by Norse warrior-kings; in particular, it is used to refer to the city controlled by these kings. York used to be a centre of. The Danes went on to subjugate the kingdom of Northumbria Northumbria or Northhumbria was a medieval kingdom of the Angles, in what is now Northern England and South-East Scotland, becoming subsequently an earldom in a united Anglo-Saxon kingdom of England. The name reflects the approximate southern limit to the kingdom's territory: the Humber Estuary and take all but the western portion of Mercia Mercia was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. It was centred on the valley of the River Trent and its tributaries in the region now known as the English Midlands. The name is a Latinisation of the Old English Mierce or Myrce, meaning "border people". The remaining kingdom of Wessex The Kingdom of Wessex or Kingdom of the West Saxons (Old English: Westseaxna rīce) was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the West Saxons, in South West England, from the 6th century, until the emergence of a united English state in the 10th century, under the Wessex dynasty. It was to be an earldom after Canute the Great's conquest of 1016, from 1020 to 1 was the only kingdom of the Heptarchy The Heptarchy is a collective name applied to the supposed seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of south, east, and central Great Britain during late antiquity and the early Middle Ages which eventually unified into the Kingdom of England. During the same period, what are now Ireland, Scotland and Wales were also divided into comparable petty kingdoms. The left. Alfred the Great Alfred the Great , was King of Wessex from 871 to 899. Alfred is noted for his defence of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of southern England against the Vikings, becoming the only English king to be accorded the epithet "the Great". Alfred was the first King of the West Saxons to style himself "King of the Anglo-Saxons". Details of managed to maintain his kingdom of Wessex The Kingdom of Wessex or Kingdom of the West Saxons (Old English: Westseaxna rīce) was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the West Saxons, in South West England, from the 6th century, until the emergence of a united English state in the 10th century, under the Wessex dynasty. It was to be an earldom after Canute the Great's conquest of 1016, from 1020 to 1 and push back the Viking incursions, relieving the neighbouring kingdoms from the Danes following his famous victory over them at the Battle of Ethandun The Battle of Ethandun or Edington was a battle which took place in the English kingdom of Wessex between 6 and 12 May 878 between the English forces of Alfred the Great and the Danes led by Guthrum the Old in 878. Alfred re-established Anglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxons is the term usually used to describe the invading Germanic tribes in the south and east of Great Britain from the early 5th century AD, and their creation of the English nation, to the Norman conquest of 1066. The Benedictine monk, Bede, identified them as the descendants of three Germanic tribes: rule over the western half of Mercia Mercia was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. It was centred on the valley of the River Trent and its tributaries in the region now known as the English Midlands. The name is a Latinisation of the Old English Mierce or Myrce, meaning "border people" and the Danelaw The Danelaw, as recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , is a historical name given to the part of England in which the laws of the "Danes" held sway and dominated those of the Anglo-Saxons. It is contrasted with "West Saxon Law" and "Mercian law". The term has been extended by modern historians to be geographical. The was established which separated Mercia Mercia was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. It was centred on the valley of the River Trent and its tributaries in the region now known as the English Midlands. The name is a Latinisation of the Old English Mierce or Myrce, meaning "border people" into halves, the eastern half remaining under the control of the Danes.
Europe in the 9th centuryIreland Ireland (pronounced [ˈaɾlənd],; Irish: Éire, pronounced [ˈeːɾʲə] ( listen); Ulster Scots: Airlann) is the third largest island in Europe and the twentieth largest island in the world. It lies to the northwest of continental Europe and is surrounded by hundreds of islands and islets. To the east of Ireland is Great Britain, separated from was affected also by the Viking expansion across the North Sea The North Sea is a marginal, epeiric sea on the European continental shelf. The Dover Strait and the English Channel in the south and the Norwegian Sea in the north connect it to the Atlantic Ocean. It is more than 970 kilometres long and 580 kilometres (360 mi) wide, with an area of around 750,000 square kilometres (290,000 sq mi). A large part. Extensive raids were carried out across the coastline and eventually permanent settlements were established, such as that of Dublin Dublin is the largest city (primate city) and the capital of Ireland. It is officially known in Irish as Baile Átha Cliath [bˠalʲə aːha klʲiəh] or Áth Cliath [aːh cliə(ɸ)]. The English name comes from the Irish Dubh Linn meaning "black pool". It is located near the midpoint of Ireland's east coast, at the mouth of the River in 841. Particular targets for these raids were the monasteries on the western coast of Ireland as they provided a rich source for loot. On such raids the Vikings The term Viking is customarily used to refer to the Norse (Scandinavian) explorers, warriors, merchants, and pirates who raided, traded, and settled in wide areas of Europe and the North Atlantic islands from the late eighth to the mid-eleventh century. These Norsemen used their famed longships to travel as far east as Constantinople and the Volga set up impermanent camps, which were called longphorts by the Irish. This period of Viking raids on the coasts of Ireland Ireland (pronounced [ˈaɾlənd],; Irish: Éire, pronounced [ˈeːɾʲə] ( listen); Ulster Scots: Airlann) is the third largest island in Europe and the twentieth largest island in the world. It lies to the northwest of continental Europe and is surrounded by hundreds of islands and islets. To the east of Ireland is Great Britain, separated from has been named the longphort phase after these particular types of settlements. Ireland in the ninth century was organised into an amalgam of small kingdoms, called tuatha Túath is an Old Irish word, often translated as "people, tribe or nation". It is cognate with the Old English word theod people, nation, the Welsh and Breton tud (people), and the German root of word deutsch. "Túath" referred to both the people who lived in a shared territory, and the territory they controlled. In Modern. These kingdoms were sometimes grouped together and ruled by a single, provincial ruler. Providing such a ruler can establish and maintain authority over a portion of these tuatha Túath is an Old Irish word, often translated as "people, tribe or nation". It is cognate with the Old English word theod people, nation, the Welsh and Breton tud (people), and the German root of word deutsch. "Túath" referred to both the people who lived in a shared territory, and the territory they controlled. In Modern they were sometimes granted the title of High King (see High King of Ireland A High King of Ireland is an historical or legendary figure who claimed lordship over the whole of Ireland. Medieval and early modern Irish literature portrays an almost unbroken sequence of High Kings, ruling from Tara over a hierarchy of lesser kings, stretching back thousands of years. Modern historians believe this scheme is artificial,).
Scotland Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In addition to the mainland, Scotland experienced significant Viking incursions during the ninth century also. The Vikings The term Viking is customarily used to refer to the Norse (Scandinavian) explorers, warriors, merchants, and pirates who raided, traded, and settled in wide areas of Europe and the North Atlantic islands from the late eighth to the mid-eleventh century. These Norsemen used their famed longships to travel as far east as Constantinople and the Volga established themselves in coastal regions, usually in northern Scotland, and in the northern isles such as Orkney Orkney also known as the Orkney Islands (and sometimes incorrectly as "The Orkneys"[Notes 1]), is an archipelago in northern Scotland, situated 16 kilometres (10 mi) north of the coast of Caithness. Orkney comprises approximately 70 islands of which 20 are inhabited. The largest island, known as the "Mainland" has an area of 523 and Shetland Coordinates: 60°18′14″N 1°16′08″W / 60.3038°N 1.2689°W Shetland is an archipelago in Scotland, off the northeast coast. The islands lie to the northeast of Orkney, 280 km (170 mi) from the Faroe Islands and form part of the division between the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the North Sea to the east. The total area is. The Viking invasion and settlement in Scotland provided a contributing factor in the collapse of the kingdoms of the Picts The Picts were a confederation of Celtic tribes living in what was later to become eastern and northern Scotland from before the Roman conquest of Britain until the 10th century, when they merged with the Gaels. They lived to the north of the Forth and Clyde rivers, and spoke the extinct Pictish language, thought to have been related to the, who inhabited most of Scotland at the time. Not only were the Pictish realms either destroyed or severely weakened, the Viking invasion and settlement may have been the reason for the movement of Kenneth MacAlpin, the present king of Dál Riata Dál Riata was a Gaelic overkingdom on the western seaboard of Scotland with some territory on the northern coasts of Ireland. In the late 6th and early 7th century it encompassed roughly what is now Argyll and Bute and Lochaber in Scotland and also County Antrim in Northern Ireland, which had also been devastated by the Viking incursions. The kingdom of Dál Riata Dál Riata was a Gaelic overkingdom on the western seaboard of Scotland with some territory on the northern coasts of Ireland. In the late 6th and early 7th century it encompassed roughly what is now Argyll and Bute and Lochaber in Scotland and also County Antrim in Northern Ireland, located on the western coast of Scotland, had been destroyed after the death of their previous king Áed mac Boanta in 839, according to the Annals of Ulster, which may have made the new king Kenneth MacAlpin move to the east, and conquer the remnants of the Pictish realms. Kenneth MacAlpin became king of the Picts The Picts were a confederation of Celtic tribes living in what was later to become eastern and northern Scotland from before the Roman conquest of Britain until the 10th century, when they merged with the Gaels. They lived to the north of the Forth and Clyde rivers, and spoke the extinct Pictish language, thought to have been related to the in 843 and later kings would be titled as the King of Alba or King of Scots The monarch of Scotland was the head of state of the Kingdom of Scotland. According to tradition, the first King of Scots was Kenneth MacAlpin , who founded the state in 843. The distinction between the Kingdom of Alba/Scotland and the Kingdom of the Picts is rather the product of later medieval myth and confusion from a change in nomenclature, i.
Art of the Dark Ages
First and foremost, art was dedicated to the Church. The basic tools of the Roman Catholic mass, thousands of golden art objects were made. Sacred cups, vessels, reliqueries, crucifixes, rosaries, altar pieces, and statues of the Virgin and Child or Saints all kept the flame of art from dying out in the period. Architecture began to revive to some extent by the 9th century. It took the form of Church facilities of all kinds, and the first castle fortifications since Roman times began to take form in simple "moat and baily" castles, or simple "strong point" tower structures, with little refinement.
Events
Eastern Hemisphere at the beginning of the 9th century AD. Eastern Hemisphere at the end of the 9th century AD.- The Arab merchant Shulama wrote that Chinese junk ships could carry 600 to 700 passengers aboard for sailing missions into the Indian Ocean. He wrote that the draft of Chinese ships was too deep for entering the Euphrates River (modern-day Iraq), which forced them to land small boats on the banks of the river for passengers and cargo instead.
- An unknown event causes the decline of the Maya Classical Era.
- Beowulf might have been written down in this century, though it could also have been in the 8th century.
- Reign of Charlemagne, and concurrent (and controversially labeled) Carolingian Renaissance in Western Europe.
- Large-scale Viking attacks on Europe begin, devastating countless numbers of people.
- Oseberg ship burial.
- The Magyars arrive in what is now Hungary, taking it from the First Bulgarian Empire.
- The Tukolor settle in the Senegal river valley.
- Muslim traders settle in the northwest and southeast of Madagascar.
- 800: Charlemagne is crowned emperor of Rome by Pope Leo III.
- 800: Arab fleet sails up the Tiber.
- 800 – 909: Rule of Aghlabids as an independent Muslim dynasty in North Africa, with their capital at Tunis.
- 802: Jayavarman II of the Khmer people in Cambodia founds the Khmer empire and establishes the Angkorian dynasty.
- 803: Construction on the Leshan Giant Buddha in Tang Dynasty China is complete, after 90 years of rock-carving on a massive cliff-side.
- 809 – 817: War between the Byzantine empire and the Bulgars.
- 811: Battle of Pliska fought between a Byzantine force led by emperor Nicephorus I and a Bulgar army commanded by Khan Krum. Byzantines are defeated in a series of engagements, culminating with the death of Nicephorus I
- c. 813 – c. 915: Period of serious Arab naval raids on shores of Tyrrhenian and Adriatic seas.
- 814: Charlemagne dies at Aachen.
- 827 – 902: Aghlabid dynasty colonises emirates in Sicily and subsequently raids Southern Italy.
- 830: House of Wisdom, a library and translation institute, established by al-Ma'mun, Abbasid caliph, in Baghdad to transfer the knowledge of Greeks, Persians, Indians, etc. to Muslim world.[1] Also The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing which is one of the book of algebra is written by Al-Khwarizmi who worked there.
- 840: Death of Louis the Pious.
- 841: Dublin is founded on the east coast of Ireland by the Vikings.
- 843: The three sons of Louis the Pious reach an agreement known as the Treaty of Verdun and split the Carolingian empire into three divisions; East Francia was given to Louis the German, West Francia to Charles the Bald and Middle Francia to Lothair I.
- 845: Buddhism is persecuted and banned in China.
- 848 – 852: The west bank of the Tiber is annexed into the city of Rome. A defensive wall, commissioned by Pope Leo IV, is built around what came to be called the Leonine City.
- 850 – 875: The first Norse settlers arrive on Iceland.
- 851: The Arab merchant Suleiman al-Tajir visits the Chinese seaport at Guangzhou in southern China, and observes the manufacturing of porcelain, the Islamic mosque built at Guangzhou, the granary system of the city, and how its municipal administration functioned.
- 859: Muslims establish the oldest university in the world, University of Al Karaouine, in Fez, Morocco[2]
- 862: The beginning the Rurik Dynasty in Russia
- 863: The Chinese author Duan Chengshi describes the slave trade, ivory trade, and ambergris trade of Somalia in East Africa.
- 862: The Bagratuni Dynasty of Medieval Armenia begins with Ashot I
- 863 – 879: Period of schism between eastern and western churches.
- 864: Christianization of Bulgaria under Boris I
- 867: Onward Revival of the Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty.
- 868: Ahmad ibn Tulun breaks away from the Abbasid Caliphate and establishes the independent Tulunid dynasty.
- 870: Prague Castle founded.
- 871 – 899: Reign of Alfred the Great.
- 875 – 884: Huang Chao leads an unsuccessful rebellion against the Tang Dynasty in China.
- 878: Battle of Ethandun results in the victory of Alfred the Great over the Danish warlord Guthrum.
- 885: Arrival of the disciples of SS. Cyril and Methodius, Clement of Ohrid and Naum of Preslav in Bulgaria. Development of the Cyrillic Alphabet.
- 896: Magyars arrive in the Carpathian Basin and found an independent state, which would, during the tenth and early eleventh century, develop into the Kingdom of Hungary, which was established in 1001.
- Late 9th century: Bulgaria stretches from the mouth of the Danube to Epirus and Bosnia.
- In Italy, some cities became free republics: for instance Forlì, in 889.
- The Christian Nubian kingdom reaches its peak of prosperity and military power. (Early history of Sudan).
- Harald Fairhair was victorious at the battle of Hafrsfjord, and Norway was unified into one kingdom.
- Chess reaches Japan.
- The Medieval Warm Period begins.
- The Coptic period, at its most broad definition, ends.
- Page from Koran (Surah II:286 and title Surah III) in kufic script, from Syria, is made. It is now kept at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
- Late 9th century – Pallava dynasty ends in Southern India.
- Late 9th century - Womb World mandala, To-ji, Kyoto, is made. Heian period.
- 9th – 10th century – Bowl with kufic border, from Samarkand, Uzbekistan, is made. It is now kept at Musée du Louvre, Paris.
Significant people
Charlemagne (left) and Pippin the Hunchback. Tenth-century copy of a lost original from about 830. Saint Clement of Ohrid- Adi Sankara
- Al-Jahiz
- Alfred the Great
- Arnulf of Carinthia
- Basil I the Macedonian (Βασίλειος Α') (811–886), ruled (867)–(886)
- Boris I of Bulgaria
- Empress Irene of Athens
- Charlemagne
- Clement of Ohrid
- Han Yu
- Harald I of Norway
- Huang Chao
- Harun al-Rashid
- Krum Khan of Bulgaria
- Kenneth I of Scotland
- Louis the Pious
- Naum of Preslav
- Rurik
- Simeon I of Bulgaria
- Saints Cyril and Methodius
- Taizu of Later Liang
- Wang Kon
Inventions, discoveries, introductions
- List of 9th-10th centuries inventions
- First image of a rotary grindstone in a European source—illustration shows crank, first known use of a crank in the West (Utrecht Psalter, A.D. 843)
- First known printed book, the Diamond Sutra, printed in China using woodblock printing in 868 AD.
- Invention of gunpowder by Chinese Taoist Alchemists.
- Vulgar Latin begins to develop into various Romance languages.
- Two syllabaries or kana are developed from simplified Chinese characters in Japan.
See also
Timeline of 9th century Muslim history
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References
- ^ Apley, Alice. "Igbo-Ukwu (ca. 9th century)". Metropolitan Museum of Art. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/igbo/hd_igbo.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-23.
- ^ The Guinness Book Of Records, Published 1998, ISBN 0-553-57895-2, P.242
Categories: 9th century | 1st millennium | Centuries
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Sun, 18 Jul 2010 16:09:55 GMT+00:00
Gaea Times (blog) December 9th , 2009 more images more imagesDUBAI - Riding on his match-winning 293 in the third Test against Sri Lanka, Virender Sewhag stormed into the ...
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Sun, 04 Apr 2010 05:41:32 GM
Gregorian Chants and . 9th Century. Notation General Musical Discussions.
Q. I am doing a project on Macbeth and I need to advise him some herbal remedies to cure his insanity and insomnia! What were/are some herbal remedies to help cure such problems?
Asked by cutie_006006 - Thu Apr 12 17:23:05 2007 - - 1 Answers - 0 Comments
A. you might find some ideas in this article
Answered by Eden* - Fri Apr 13 04:28:59 2007
